Essay On Slacks And Calluses - 742 Words

Slacks and Calluses, presents the summer of 1943 from the perspective of Constance Bowman and Clara Marie Allen, two school teachers, who set aside summer vacation to help with war efforts in a bomber factory. Coming into the air craft industry, they had no idea what to expect, â€Å"We were the kind of girls who knew nothing about airplanes except that they had wings and they fly.† (p.1). Obstacles they faced included an unjust work place and harassment. Women who wore skirts and rings on their fingers received a greater amount of respect from men, than those who wore slacks and calluses on their fingers. Despite stumbling blocks, Constance and Clara worked in the factories out of a sense of patriotism. Social class is defined as a division†¦show more content†¦They were never offered seats from men. Only women in skirts we offered seats as stated in the book, â€Å"The truth was though that the two women in skirts who got on at the same time we did were always offered seats. (p. 71). It was as if the men did not appreciate their good deeds to the country. Slacks and Calluses does a great job in depicting how the country did not embrace the idea of women in factories for war production. â€Å"The fact that we were building bombers seemed a dubious contribution to the war effort to the people who knew about it.† (p.83). The book went on to say how Clara Marie’s father worried about the girl’s work being checked by men for accuracy, as if they were not capable of doing good work by their selves. There was a great deal of men who hated the fact that school teachers were working in the factories, they felt as though school teachers were helpless. Although all the women were not fond of working in the factories, Constance Bowman and Clara Marie worked their out of a sense of patriotism. They loved the fact that they were putting aside summer vacation in order to help out with war efforts. In fact, Constance and Clara stated, â€Å"The dollars that we made this summer were not many, anybody who thought we had been motivated by anything but patriotism in its purest form could just look at our pay-checks.† (p. 173). They enjoyed coming in early and staying late, just to go for a ride in theShow MoreRelatedslacks and calluses Essay921 Words   |  4 PagesSlacks and Calluses: Our Summer in a Bomber Factory Women had different perspectives during World War 2. Many served in different branches of armed forces. Some labored in war productions plants. Most women stayed at home and had other responsibilities to raise children, balance check books, and some labored in war-related office jobs, while the men went to war. In addition to factory work and other front jobs about 350,000 women joined the Armed services, serving at home and abroad. â€Å"Rosie theRead MoreEssay On Slacks And Calluses884 Words   |  4 PagesThe novel Slacks and Calluses: Our Summer in a Bomber Factory is a story written about two women’s summer in an airplane factory during World War II. Constance Bowman Reid and Clara Marie Allen describe what life was like for women who worked in factories during this time. They explain how women’s apparel determined their social class and how they were treated; factories welcomed them into the workforce, but the world could not accept women being away from home; and some women worked out of patriotismRead MoreAnalysis Of The Poem Our Summer A Bomber Factory By Constance Bowman Reid1094 Words   |  5 PagesSlacks and Calluses: Our Summer in a Bomber Factory, written by Constance Bowman Reid, tells the true story of herself and her friend, Clara Marie Allen and their summer spent working in an airplane factory in order to help out during World War II. These two women portray the bravery that women during wartime displayed, while unknowingly changing the way society would view women forever. The story of Bowman Reid and Allen gives an inside look on what it is really like to be a factory working femaleRead MoreThe Work Study Job Of Transcribe Oral History Tapes From Richland Center, Wisconsin5921 Words   |  24 Pageswill be some real-world examples obtained from oral histories collected by Aharon Zorea in Richland Center, WI. All these elements will come together to tell of women and the war. The oral histories give a few examples of the issues presented in this essay. You cannot talk about women from this time period without mentioning family. â€Å"Most Americans agree that prior to federal interference in the 1930s, the self-reliant family was the standard social unit of our society.† Though this idea is largely

Social Class in America - 1217 Words

America is seen as the land of opportunity across the world, but many people wonder if it is true. The truth is America does have opportunities and with dedication anything is possible though the opportunities are limited. Usually limited for those who belong to a lower social class. The main reason opportunities are limited are because of America’s social inequality. The social class of America is separated into multiple groups that struggle with each other due to the inequality of power and wealth on the daily basis. Social class has always been influential in America even though many people put forth that someone’s social class is insignificant when building friendships or any other relationship. But the reality is that those thoughts are mistaken because the truth is social class has become a larger concept than what it’s thought to be. Due to the class difference all the social classes have been drifting apart from each other and avoid interacting with each other (Bartlett 1). A social class that has been highly isolated from rest has been all those who live in poverty. Many people are aware of the issues involving poverty, yet they choose to do nothing expecting the government to solve the problem. What people don’t take into consideration is that his problem affects not only them, but also the country as a whole. According to Ron Smith escaping poverty has become more challenging than in past years due to the lack of employment opportunities and theShow MoreRelatedEssay about Social Class in America1524 Words   |  7 PagesPeople Like Us: Social Class in America Film Review Introduction America is a complex and diverse web of individuals marked by social stratification, a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy (Macionis, 2011, p.204). The film People Like Us: Social Class in America discusses the class system, social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement, which the American people use to define others (Macionis, 2011, p.206). It explores the many variables thatRead MoreThe Impact of Social Class Distinction in America Essay890 Words   |  4 Pageshis essay, class is a â€Å"touchy subject.† Class is often noted as â€Å"any group of plants or animals.† However, when it comes to defining class as social distinctions, the word becomes more complex. The social class structure has remained â€Å"murky† over the years, and to most Americans, extremely complicated. In today’s society, social class has become more and more intricate, but it has never been set to where Americans feel comforta ble in their own skin. Today, when talking about social class, people tendRead More American Comedy and Issues of Social Class in America Essay1595 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Comedy and Issues of Social Class in America Issues of the social class have been an important element of American film comedies. Since the silent era until the current day, comedy films tend to focus on many contemporary common social class issues in America. During the silent era of film, the three well known comedians, Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and Harold Lloyd. Throughout his films, Chaplins character is portrayed as a lower-class man, who is trying toRead MoreDoes America Have Social Classes?1485 Words   |  6 Pages Kristen Gay English Composition 111 Lorna Naylor November 23, 2015 Does America Have Social Classes? Society has developed a concept of social class, which allows them to place people in different economic, political, and socio-economic groups. The word social means relating to society or its organization. The word class means people living together in a more or less ordered community. â€Å"The definition of social class is a separation of society based on economic status† (Dictionary.com). â€Å"PeopleRead MoreUnited States Six Economic Social Classes1450 Words   |  6 Pagesdetermines social class. A social class is any person or group of people with the same educational, social or economical status. Social class can be broken down into many different categories such as race, age, gender, economic status, educational status and many more. Social class can be measured in many different ways such as financial status, family values, appearance, and demeanor. In America there are six main economical social classes which are the: Very poor, Poor, Working class, Middle cla ssRead MoreWealth and Power of The Upper Class: An Organized Elite Essay1111 Words   |  5 Pagesof several books on the theory of power and class structure. In his book, Who rules America Now? Domhoff provides an in depth analysis of the structure of wealth and power in America. He asserts the existence of an institutional upper class in America that is able to dictate/direct the politics, economy and government by virtue of its wealth and power. I contend that Domhoff through his analysis of the wealth and power structure of the American upper class can be considered as a lay cultural theoristRead MorePotential Limits to Corporate Power in America Essay1246 Words   |  5 Pagesof the textbook, Who Rules America? by G. William Domhoff, is to explain his theory of Class Domination. My essay emphasises the relation of social class to power, the existence of a Corporate community, the relationship of the Corporate community to the upper class, and various methods used by the Corpo rate community to dominate the U.S Political System. Furthermore, my essay will discuss the potential limits to corporate power in America. The realtion of social class to power, is a belief aboutRead MoreThe Inequality Of Social Classes982 Words   |  4 PagesAmerica is referred to as a molting pot, which means that it has a variety of ethnic cultures and backgrounds that are unified. Though America may be diverse, there is still a huge factor that separates people and prevents those from becoming an equal. That discrepancy is the iniquity in social classes. On September of 2011, Matt Wuerker a political cartoonist for Politico, published Kitchen Tables that highlighted the injustice in social classes. It is a cartoon that consist of three differentRead MorePursuit of the American Dream in The Great Gatsby and in Wilsons Fences867 Words   |  4 PagesAmerican or immigrant. Specifically, one of the ideals that always exist is the dream of America free of class distinction. Every American hopes for a society where every person has the opportunity to be whomever he or she desire. Another ideal in the American dream is the drive to improve the quality of life. As one’s idea of the American Dream gets closer and closer, often times political and social ideals of America cause their American Dream to take a turn for the worst. The American Dream hasRead MoreFilm: The Breakfast Club Essay993 Words   |  4 Pagesteenage rebellion, peer pressure and family issues as the students get to know each other. The most prominent theme throughout the movie is the student’s placement in the social structure of the school. From the very different reasons why they are in detention to the way that they are all treated differently by the principle, their social placement is evident. In the movie, the principle asks the students to each write a 1,000 word essay on who they think they are as a person. By the end of the day, they

Martin’s Textiles Free Essays

Case #1- Martin’s Textiles The survival of Martin’s Textiles is very much in doubt with the enactment of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which would not only eliminate tariffs but also allow an increase in the quota for Canada and Mexico to ship textiles to the United States. Compounding the issue, Martin’s Textiles has been registering small losses the past several years and is in danger of losing major customers. Therefore, John Martin, CEO of Martin’s Textiles, has to decide whether to move production of his company to Mexico in order to lower labor costs or keep production in the United States, where the company has good labor relations with its employees. We will write a custom essay sample on Martin’s Textiles or any similar topic only for you Order Now In regards to the dilemma that Martin’s Textiles face, I would recommend that the company move its production base to Mexico in order to lower labor costs and stay competitive within the industry. Martin’s Textiles was founded in 1910 and has spanned four generations of the Martin family. However, with the implementation of NAFTA, all tariffs between the United States, Canada, and Mexico would be eliminated within the next 10 to 15 years with most tariffs cut in 5 years. Especially impactful for Martin’s Textiles was the plan’s provision that all tariffs on trade of textiles among the three countries would be removed within 10 years. Even more devastating for the textile industry was that the quota for Mexico and Canada to ship clothing and textiles to the United States each year would rise slightly over the first five years of the agreement. Thus, many textile competitors moved operations to Mexico in response to increased cost competition since the textile industry involved low-skilled and labor-intensive business. In order to cut costs, John Martin needed to lower his labor costs and the only surefire way to do so would be to move production south to Mexico. However, Martin’s textiles has always had great labor relations with its workers and John Martin prided himself on knowing most of the names of employees and even knowing family circumstances of the longtime employees. Therefore, John Martin needed to decide whether to move production down south to Mexico to save costs and keep up with the competition or keep production in the United States where the company has developed strong employee relations. In evaluating what decision John Martin should make, there are several factors that he must consider. The first issue is the economic costs of the business. In the manufacturing industry, work is defined as low-skilled but labor-intensive and thus costs are driven by wage rates and labor productivity. Therefore, it is not so difficult to find workers that are able to work in the textile industry but the challenge in recruiting workers is that the work is very labor intensive. In evaluating the cost of labor, it is important to find workers willing to work for low wages and also ones that are self-motivated and have high workmanship. In addition, another factor to consider is the social costs. As mentioned above, Martin’s Textiles has strong employee relations and thus workers are loyal and have high workmanship. Thus, would the company’s brand take a hit by moving production to Mexico and releasing 1,500 employees, many of whom have been with the company for many years. On the other side, how would Mexican workers respond to the working culture of Martin’s Textiles and would workers show the same loyalty and workmanship that the current employees show? Finally, one has to consider the competitors and rival products when evaluating this decision. What are your competitors doing and how are their products compared to yours in terms of pricing and quality. In evaluating whether Martin’s Textiles should shift production to Mexico or stay in the United States, I believe that the best choice would be to move production plants to Mexico instead of keeping production in the United States. In looking at both alternatives through a SWOT analysis (for a diagram view look at Appendix A and B), it is evident that moving production to Mexico is the more desirable option. First we will look at the option to keep production in the United States, where there are several strengths in this decision. Martin’s Textiles would be able to maintain its strong labor relationship with employees that is has built over the years and consequently not have to deal with labor disputes. Also, the company would not have to invest additional resources in building or purchasing a production plant in Mexico as well as having to move equipment down south. In the short run, they would be able to enjoy the benefits of tariffs in trade. But there are also weaknesses to this decision as well. For one, the company would have to deal with cheap imports coming from Asia and now Mexico since those countries have the advantage of cheaper labor. Also, the company would not have the benefits of a trade barrier with the enactment of NAFTA. Whereas before, the company could justify having higher prices since cheaper imports were subjected to quotas and tariffs; now the higher costs that Martin’s Textiles employed would no longer be protected. Thus, Martin’s Textiles could lose a lot of its clientele since many could opt for cheaper alternatives with the same quality. Additionally, the tariff barrier will be rescinded within 10 years creating further problems for Martin’s Textiles if it is still operating. An opportunity that could arise if Martin’s Textiles decided to remain in the United States would be to brand itself as an â€Å"All-American† company. Since the whole operation of the company is based in the United States, Martin’s Textiles can market itself as such and hope that the patriotism and nationalism card will resonate with its customers. Threats or risks that may come up if Martin’s Textiles decides to stay in the United States could be that the company will not be able to survive the higher labor costs and that its competitors could undercut prices so much that Martin’s Textiles would no longer be viable. Customers have already threatened to leave if costs are not reduced so the company has to figure out a way to cut costs. If it decides that it won’t cut labor costs, then there has to be cuts in other parts of the company. Whether it is the sales force, research and development, or the designers, another part of the company will have to suffer cuts. Next, we consider the alternative of moving production to Mexico and after evaluating this decision through a SWOT analysis, it is clear that moving production to Mexico is the favored decision. One of the strengths of this decision is that the economic costs are highly favorable. The labor cost for textile workers in Mexico are less than $2 per hour compared to the wage rate paid to workers in the unionized New York plant, $12. 50 per hour. In addition by moving production to Mexico, Martin’s Textiles will be able to avoid cost disadvantages that they would have faced by keeping their production base in the United States. In the United States, there are tougher and stricter labor laws, regulations and standards than in other countries. Therefore, Martin’s Textiles will be at a disadvantage to companies in foreign countries with lax labor laws like China. In addition, Martin’s Textiles will be able to enjoy the benefits of the NAFTA agreement now that they have moved their production base to Mexico. The trade agreement allows for an increase in the quota of Mexican and Canadian clothing and textiles to the shipped to the United States. Additionally, tariffs on trade of textiles would be removed within 10 years. Finally, moving production to Mexico would allow Martin’s Textiles to keep most of its major customers as they will be able to enjoy the benefits of lower prices in products since labor costs have been reduced dramatically. However, there are also weaknesses for Martin’s Textiles in moving production plants down to Mexico. For one, Martin’s Textiles reputation will take a hit as the company has had a long history of good labor relations with its workers. Also, there is a great unknown in the Mexican workforce, as John Martin has heard stories of low productivity, poor workmanship, high turnover, and high absenteeism. For John, this may be an unsettling situation as he has relied on strong employee relations over the years. In addition, it would be hard for Martin’s Textiles to forge the same work culture, as John Martin would have a difficult time establishing relations with foreign workers who speak a different language. An opportunity that could benefit Martin’s Textiles if moving to Mexico would be to expand its production to other garments and clothing if desired since it can now employ cheaper labor. If there is a new hot fad in the United States, Martin’s Textiles would have the opportunity to capitalize due to the immense savings from labor costs, which allow them to hire more workers and expand production. A threat or risk of moving production to Mexico could be that the Mexican government demands a bribe from the company for purchasing a textile plant or building a new one. As seen in Appendix C, Mexico is shaded darker than the United States, which makes it more corrupt. Therefore, Martin’s Textiles could be subjected to paying bribes or buying needless licenses. I believe that the best decision for John Martin to make is to move the company’s production to Mexico instead of keeping production in the United States. Although the company has developed an outstanding record of employee relations and there is great uncertainty with the workforce in Mexico, the economic benefits of moving to Mexico are too great. The company would be saving over $10 per hour on each worker and these savings would allow the company to keep customers. In addition, Martin’s Textiles would be able to keep up with its competitors in Asia and other textile companies that have moved their production to Mexico. Though the decision to move production to Mexico would not be a popular decision locally as many people would be losing their jobs, the vitality of the company is at stake. By not moving production to Mexico, Martin’s Textiles would be at risk of falling behind its competitors and ultimately going out of business. How to cite Martin’s Textiles, Papers

Basic qualities of the perfect forms free essay sample

BASIC QUALITIES OF THE PERFECT FORMS The Modern English perfect signifiers have been the topic of a drawn-out treatment which has non so far brought about a definite consequence. The troubles inherent in these signifiers are apparent plenty and may outdo be illustrated by the present perfect. This signifier contains the nowadays of the verb haveand is called present perfect, yet it denotes an action which no longer takes topographic point, and it is ( about ever ) translated into Russian by the past tense, e. g. has writ10s # 8212 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; # 1087 ; # 1080 ; # 1089 ; # 1072 ; # 1083 ; , has arrived # 8212 ; # 1087 ; # 1088 ; # 1080 ; # 1077 ; # 1093 ; # 1072 ; # 1083 ; , etc. The place of the perfect signifiers in the system of the English verb is a job which has been treated in many different ways and has occasioned much contention. Among the assorted positions on the kernel of the perfect signifiers in Modern English the undermentioned three chief tendencies should be mentioned: 1. The class of perfect is a curious tense class, i. e. a class which should be classed in the same list as the classs present and past . This position was held, for illustration, by O. Jespersen. 1 2. The class of perfect is a curious facet class, i. e. one which should be given a topographic point in the list consisting common facet and uninterrupted facet . This position was held by a figure of bookmans, including Prof. G. Vorontsova.2Those who hold this position have expressed different sentiments about the peculiar facet representing the kernel of the perfect signifiers. It has been diversely defined as retrospective , resultative , consecutive , etc.3 3. The class of perfect is neither one of tense, nor one of facet but a specific class different from both. It should consequently be designated by a particular term and its dealingss to the classs of facet and tense should be investigated. This position was expressed by Prof. A. Smirnitsky. He took the perfect to be a agency of showing the class of clip relation ( # 1074 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1084 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1072 ; # 1103 ; # 1086 ; # 1090 ; # 1085 ; # 1077 ; # 1089 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; ) .4 This broad divergency of positions on the very kernel of a verbal class may look amazing. However, its causes appear to be clear plenty from the point of position of contemporary linguistics. These causes fall under the undermentioned three chief caputs: 1See O. Jespersen, The Philosophy of Grammar,p. 254ff. 2See # 1043 ; . # 1053 ; . # 1042 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1086 ; # 1085 ; # 1094 ; # 1086 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; , # 1054 ; # 1095 ; # 1077 ; # 1088 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1087 ; # 1086 ; # 1075 ; # 1088 ; # 1072 ; # 1084 ; # 1084 ; # 1072 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1077 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1083 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1075 ; # 1086 ; # 1103 ; # 1079 ; # 1099 ; # 1082 ; # 1072 ; ,1960. # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1088 ; . 191 # 1089 ; # 1083 ; . 3Ibid. 4See # 1040 ; . # 1048 ; . # 1057 ; # 1084 ; # 1080 ; # 1088 ; # 1085 ; # 1080 ; # 1094 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; . # 1055 ; # 1077 ; # 1088 ; # 1092 ; # 1077 ; # 1082 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1072 ; # 1090 ; # 1077 ; # 1075 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1080 ; # 1103 ; # 1074 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1084 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1081 ; # 1086 ; # 1090 ; # 1085 ; # 1077 ; # 1089 ; # 1105 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; . # 1048 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1088 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1099 ; # 1077 ; # 1103 ; # 1079 ; # 1099 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1074 ; # 1096 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1083 ; # 1077 ; , 1955, # 8470 ;1, 2. Basic Qualities of the Perfect Forms91 1. Scholars have been seeking to specify the basic character of this class without paying sufficient attending to the system of classs of which it is bound to do a portion. As we shall see soon, considerations of the system as a whole regulation out some of the proposed solutions. 2. In seeking the significance of the class, bookmans have non ever been careful to separate between its basic significance ( the constant ) and its alterations due to influence of context. 3. In seeking the basic significance of the class, bookmans have non ever pull a clear line of differentiation between the significance of the grammatical class as such and the significances which belong to, or are influenced by, the lexical significance of the verb ( or verbs ) used in one of the perfect signifiers. If we carefully extinguish these three beginnings of mistake and confusion we shall hold a much better opportunity of geting at a true and nonsubjective solution. Let us now consider the positions expressed by different bookmans in the order in which we mentioned them above. If we are to happen out whether the perfect can be a tense class, i. e. a tense among other tenses, we must see its dealingss to the tenses already established and non apt to doubts about their basic character, i. e. past, nowadays, and hereafter. There is no existent trouble here. We need merely recollect that there are in Modern English the signifiers 1present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. That present, past, and hereafter are tense classs, is steadfastly established and has neer been doubted by anyone. Now, if the perfect were besides a tense class, the present perfect would be a brotherhood of two different tenses ( the nowadays and the perfect ) , the past perfect would similarly be a brotherhood of two different tenses ( the yesteryear and the perfect ) and the hereafter perfect, excessively, would be a brotherhood of two different tenses ( the hereafter and the perfect ) . This is clearly impossible. If a signifier already belongs to a tense class ( say, the prese nt ) it can non at the same time belong to another tense class, since two tense classs in one signifier would, as it were, collide and destruct each other. Hence it follows that the class of perfect can non be a tense class. We need non see here assorted positions expressed by those who thought that the perfect was a tense, since their positions, whatever the inside informations may be, are shown to be indefensible by the above consideration. So the position that the perfect is a particular tense class has been disproved. In order to happen out whether the perfect can be an aspect class, we must see its dealingss to the facets already established, 1We use here the non-committal term signifier to avoid any pre-judgement refering the kernel of the class in inquiry. We will utilize the term in similar contexts elsewhere. 92The Verb: The Perfect viz. the common and the uninterrupted facets. 1This job does non show any peculiar trouble, either. We need merely recollect that there are in Modern English such braces as is composing # 8212 ; hasbeen composing, was composing # 8212 ; had been composing, will be composing # 8212 ; will hold been composing,i. e. present uninterrupted and present perfect uninterrupted, past uninterrupted and past perfect uninterrupted, future uninterrupted and future perfect uninterrupted. All of these signifiers belong to the uninterrupted facet, so the difference between them can non perchance be based on any aspect class. For illustration, since both was composingand had been composingbelong to the uninterrupted facet ( as distinct from wroteand had written ) ,they can non be said to differ from each other on an aspect line ; otherwise they would at the same clip belong to one facet and to different facets, which is evidently impossible. Hence the decision is ineluctable that the perfect is non an facet. The positions of those who consider the perfect to be an aspect demand non hence be discussed here in item. Since the perfect is neither a tense nor an facet, it is bound to be some particular grammatical class, different both from tense and from facet. This position, though non rather explicitly stated, was first put frontward by Prof. A. Smirnitsky in a posthumous article.2It is in complete harmoniousness with the rule of distributive analysis, though Prof. Smirnitsky did non, at the clip, utilize the term distributive analysis . The kernel of the grammatical class expressed by the perfect, and differing both from tense and from facet, is difficult to specify and to happen a name for. Prof. Smirnitsky proposed to name it the class of clip relation , which is non a really happy term, because it seems to convey us back to the old position that the perfect is a particular sort of tense # 8212 ; a position which Prof. Smirnitsky rather justly combated. Later it was proposed to replace his term of clip relation by that of correlativity ( # 1089 ; # 1086 ; # 1086 ; # 1090 ; # 1085 ; # 1077 ; # 1089 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1100 ; ) , which has the advantage of extinguishing the unwanted term clip . This is unquestionably the term to be preferred. As to the resistance in such braces as writes # 8212 ; has written,wrote # 8212 ; had written, will compose # 8212 ; will hold written, is composing # 8212 ; has been composing, was composing # 8212 ;had been composing, will be writing # 8212 ;will hold been composing,Prof. Smirnitsky proposed to denote it by the correlate footings non-perfect and perfect . While this 1We are continuing here on the premise that the being of these two facets, and, so, of facet as a class of the English verb has been recognised. If its being is denied the job presents itself in a different visible radiation ( see p. 81 ) . 2See # 1040 ; . # 1048 ; . # 1057 ; # 1084 ; # 1080 ; # 1088 ; # 1085 ; # 1080 ; # 1094 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; , # 1055 ; # 1077 ; # 1088 ; # 1092 ; # 1077 ; # 1082 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; # 1082 ; # 1072 ; # 1090 ; # 1077 ; # 1075 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1080 ; # 1103 ; # 1074 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1084 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1081 ; # 1086 ; # 1090 ; # 1085 ; # 1077 ; # 1089 ; # 1105 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1080 ; . # 1048 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1088 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1099 ; # 1077 ; # 1103 ; # 1079 ; # 1099 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1074 ; # 1096 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1083 ; # 1077 ; , 1955, # 8470 ; 2. Seealso # 1040 ; . # 1048 ; . # 1057 ; # 1084 ; # 1080 ; # 1088 ; # 1085 ; # 1080 ; # 1094 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; , # 1052 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1092 ; # 1086 ; # 1083 ; # 1086 ; # 1075 ; # 1080 ; # 1103 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1083 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1075 ; # 1086 ; # 1103 ; # 1079 ; # 1099 ; # 1082 ; # 1072 ; ,1959, # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1088 ; . 274 # 8212 ; 316. Compare # 1048 ; . II. # 1048 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1074 ; # 1072 ; , # 1042 ; # 1080 ; # 1076 ; # 1080 ; # 1074 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1084 ; # 1103 ; # 1074 ; # 1089 ; # 1086 ; # 1074 ; # 1088 ; # 1077 ; # 1084 ; # 1077 ; # 1085 ; # 1085 ; # 1086 ; # 1084 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1083 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1084 ; # 1103 ; # 1079 ; # 1099 ; # 1082 ; # 1077 ; , # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1088 ; . 112 # 8212 ; 113. Basic Qualities of the Perfect Forms93 latter proposal may be to the full accepted, the definition of the significance of the class presents considerable trouble. Its kernel appears to be precedency: an action expressed by a perfect signifier precedes some minute in clip. We can non state that it ever precedes another action: the present perfect signifier is most normally used in sentences which contain no reference of any other action. On the other manus, the usage of a non-perfect signifier does non needfully connote that the action did non predate some minute in clip. It may, or it may non, have preceded it. To happen this out, the reader or listener has to take into history some other characteristic of the context, or, perchance, the state of affairs, that is, an extralinguistic factor. Therefore, the resistance between perfect and non-perfect signifiers is shown to be that between a pronounced and an unmarked point, the perfect signifiers being marked both in significance ( denoting precedency ) and in morphological features ( have+2nd participial ) , and the non-perfect signifiers unmarked both in significance ( precedency non implied ) and in morphological features ( strictly negative feature: the collocation have+ 2nd participial non used ) . On the whole, as a general term to denote the basic significance of the perfect the term correlativity in the above-named significance seems rather acceptable and w e propose to do usage of it until a better term is found, which may take some clip to go on. If this position is taken, the system of verbal classs illustrated by the signifiers writes, is composing, has written, has been composing, wrote,was composing, had written, had been composing, will compose, will be composing, will hold written, will hold been composing, # 8212 ;is based on three groups of impressions, viz.tense:present vs. past vs. hereafter ;facet:common vs. uninterrupted ;correlativity:non-perfect vs. perfect. As is seen from this list, the latter two of the three resistances are dual ( or dichotomic ) , i.e. they consist of merely two points each, whereas the first ( the tense resistance ) is ternary ( or trichotomic ) , i. e. it consists of three points. We will accept this province of things without come ining into a treatment of the inquiry whether every resistance must needfully be dichotomic, i. e. consist of two members merely. Therefore, the resistance between writesand wroteis one of tense, that between wroteand was composingone of facet, and that between wroteand had writtenone of correlativity. It is obvious that two resistances may happen together ; therefore, between writesand wascomposingthere are at the same time the resistances of tense and facet ; between wroteand will hold writtenthere are at the same time the resistances of tense and correlativity, and between wroteand had been composingthere are at the same time the resistances of facet and correlativity. And, eventually, all three resistances may happen together: therefore, between writesand had been composingthere are at the same time the resistances of tense, facet, and correlativity. 94The Verb: The Perfect If, in a system of signifiers, there is merely one resistance, it can evidently be represented diagrammatically on a line. If there are two resistances, they can be represented on a plane. Now, if there are three resistances, the system evidently can non be represented on a plane. To stand for it, we should hold resort to a 3-dimensional solid, viz. a parallelopiped. Prof. A. Smirnitsky has given a study of such a parallelopiped in his book. 1However, a drawing of a parallelopiped can non give the coveted grade of lucidity and we will non reproduce it here. However, a drawing of a parallelopiped can non give the coveted grade of lucidity and we will non reproduce it here. Use OF THE PERFECT FORMS We have accepted the definition of the basic significance of the perfect signifiers as that of precedency . However, this definition can merely be the starting point for a survey of the assorted utilizations of the perfect signifiers. Indeed, for more than one instance this definition of its significance will look entirely unequal, because its existent significance in a given context will be influenced by assorted factors. Though a really great sum of probe has been carried on in this field and many phenomena have by now been elucidated, it is merely just to state that a complete solution of all the jobs involved in the utilizations and sunglassess of significance of the perfect signifiers in Modern English is non yet in sight. Let us foremost, inquire the inquiry: what kinds of lingual factors can be expected to hold an influence on the usage and sunglassess of significance of the perfect signifiers? We will seek to reply this inquiry in a general manner, before continuing to look into the possible concrete instances. These factors, so, would look to be the followers: ( 1 ) the lexical significance of the verb ; ( 2 ) the tense class of the signifier, i. e. whether it is the present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect ( we can non be certain in progress that the tense relation is irrelevant here ) ; ( 3 ) the syntactical context, i. e. whether the perfect signifier is used in a simple sentence, or the chief clause, or once more in a subsidiary clause of a complex sentence. To these should be added an extralinguistic factor, viz. ( 4 ) the state of affairs in which the perfect signifier is used. Let us now consider each of these factors individually and so come to the inquiry of their possible interaction. ( 1 ) The significance of the verb used can impact the significance of the perfect signifier in so far as the verb may denote either an action which is disposed to bring forth an indispensable alteration in the province of the object ( e. g. He has broken the cup )or a procedure which can last indefinitely 1See # 1040 ; . # 1048 ; . # 1057 ; # 1084 ; # 1080 ; # 1088 ; # 1085 ; # 1080 ; # 1094 ; # 1082 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; , # 1052 ; # 1086 ; # 1088 ; # 1092 ; # 1086 ; # 1083 ; # 1086 ; # 1075 ; # 1080 ; # 1103 ; # 1072 ; # 1085 ; # 1075 ; # 1083 ; # 1080 ; # 1081 ; # 1089 ; # 1082 ; # 1086 ; # 1075 ; # 1086 ; # 1103 ; # 1079 ; # 1099 ; # 1082 ; # 1072 ; , # 1089 ; # 1090 ; # 1088 ; . 310. Uses of the Perfect Forms95 without conveying about any alteration ( e. g. He has lived in this metropolissince1945 ) ,etc. With the verb interruption,for case, the shadiness of intending would so be the consequence of the action ( the cup is no longer a cup but a aggregation of fragments ) , whereas with the verb liveno consequence in this exact sense can be found ; we might deduce a resultative significance merely in a slightly circuitous manner, by stating that he has now so many old ages of life in this metropolis behind him. Thus the significance of consequence, which we so do happen in the sentence Hehas broken the cup,appears to be the consequence of the combined significances of the verb as such ( in whatever signifier ) and the perfect signifier as such. It is rather natural that this significance should hold more than one time been taken to be the significance of the perfect class as such, which was a misconception.1 To give another illustration, if the verb denotes an action which brings about some new province of things, its perfect signifier is apt to get a shadiness of intending which will non be found with a verb denoting an action unable to convey about a new province. We may, for case, compare the sentences We have found the book( this implies that the book, which had been lost, is now one time more in our ownership ) and We have searched the whole room for the book( which does non connote any new province with mention to the book ) . Of class many more illustrations of this sort might be given. The basic demand is clear plenty: we must happen the significance of the signifier itself, or its invariable, and non the significance of the signifier as modified or coloured by the lexical significance of the verb. If this demand is clearly kept in head, many mistakes which have been committed in specifying the significance of the signifier will be avoided. ( 2 ) The possible dependance of the significance of perfect signifiers on the tense class ( present, past or hereafter ) is one of the most hard jobs which the theory of the perfect has had to face. It is rather natural to say that at that place ought to be an invariable significance of the phrase have+2nd participial , no affair what the tense of the verb havehappens to be, and this so is the premise we start from. However, it would be unsafe to see this hypothesis as something ascertained, without set abouting an nonsubjective probe of all the facts which may throw some visible radiation on the job. We may, for case, suspect that the present perfect, which denotes precedency to the present , i. e. to the minute of address, may turn out different from the past perfect, denoting precedency to a minute in the past, or the future perfect, denoting precedency to a minute in the hereafter: both the yesteryear and the hereafter are, of class, themselves related in some manner to the 1This was really competently pointed out by Prof. G. Vorontsova in her book ( p. 196 ) , where she criticised this construct of the English perfect found in several writers. 86The Verb: The Perfect nowadays, which appears as the Centre to which all other minutes of clip are referred in some manner or other. One of the main points in this domain is the following. If an action precedes another action, and the significance of the verb is such a 1 that the action can hold a distinguishable consequence, the present perfect signifier, together with the lexical significance of the verb ( and, we should add, perchance with some component of the context ) may bring forth the significance of a consequence to be seen at the really minute the sentence is expressed, so that the talker can indicate at that consequence with his finger, as it were. Now with the past perfect and with the hereafter perfect things are bound to be slightly different. The past perfect ( together with the factors mentioned above ) would intend that the consequence was there at a certain minute in the yesteryear, so that the talker could non perchance point at it with his finger. Still less could he make that if the action he spoke about was in the hereafter, and the hereafter perfect ( once more, together with all those factors ) denoted a consequence that would be at that place in the hereafter merely ( that is, it would merely be an expected consequence ) . 1All this has to be carefully gone into, if we are to accomplish truly nonsubjective decisions and if we are to avoid baseless generalizations and haphazard averments which may be disproved by analyzing an illustration or two which did non go on to be at our disposal at the minute of authorship. ( 3 ) The syntactical context in which a perfect signifier is used is on occasion a factor of the highest importance in finding the ultimate significance of the sentence. To exemplify this point, allow us see a few illustrations: There was a halfhearted effort at acare of the belongingss, and so Wilbraham Hall rang withthe laughter of a gag which the following twenty-four hours had become the common cherished belongings of the Five Towns.( BENNETT ) Overton waitedsoftly till he had finished.( LINDSAY ) But before he had answered,she made a face which Mark understood.( R. WEST ) The action denoted by the past perfect in these sentences is non thought of as predating the action denoted by the past tense. Another possibility of the context act uponing the existent significance of the sentence will be seen in the undermentioned illustrations. The inquiry, How long have you been here?of class implies that the individual addressed still is in the topographic point meant by the adverb here.An reply like Ihold been here for half an hrwould so practically intend, I have been here for half an hr and I still am here and may remain here for some clip to come . On the other manus, when, in G. B. Shaw s drama, Mrs Warren s Profession ( Act I ) , Vivie comes into the room and Mrs Warren asks her, Where have you been,Vivie? it is rather apparent that Vivie no longer is in the topographic point about 1See besides below ( p. 111 ) on the average sunglassess of the hereafter. Uses of the Perfect Forms97 which Mrs Warren is asking ; now she is in the room with her female parent and it would be pointless for Mrs Warren to inquire any inquiry about that. These two utilizations of the present perfect ( and similar utilizations of the past perfect, excessively ) have sometimes been classed under the headers present ( or yesteryear ) perfect inclusive and present ( or yesteryear ) perfect sole . This nomenclature can non be recommended, because it suggests the thought that there are two different significances of the present ( or yesteryear ) perfect, which is certainly incorrect. The difference does non lie in the significances of the perfect signifier, but depends on the state of affairs in which the sentence is used. The same consideration applies to the present ( or yesteryear ) perfect uninterrupted, which is besides on occasion classified into present ( or yesteryear ) perfect uninterrupted inclusive and present ( or yesteryear ) perfect uninterrupted sole. The difference in the significance of sentences is a really existent one, as willbe seen from the undermentioned illustrations. Sam, you know everybody, she said, who is that awful adult male I ve been speaking to? His name is Campofiore. ( R. WEST ) Ihave been salvaging moneythese many months.( THACKERAY, quoted by Poutsma ) Do you intend to state that deficiency has been playing with me all the clip? That he has been pressing me non to get married you because he intends to get married you himself?( SHAW ) However, this is non a difference in the significance of the verbal signifier itself, which is the same in all instances, but a difference depending on the state of affairs or context. If we were to impute the two significances to the signifier as such, we should be losing its grammatical constant, which we are seeking to find. Of class it can non be said that the analysis here given exhausts all possible utilizations and applications of the perfect signifiers in Modern English. We should ever bear in head that extensions of utilizations are possible which may sometimes travel beyond the rigorous bounds of the system. Therefore, we on occasion find the present perfect used in complex sentences both in the chief and in the subsidiary clause # 8212 ; a usage which does non rather fit in with the definition of the significance of the signifier. E. g. I ve sometimes wondered if I have ntseemed a small excessively blunt and free with you, if you might non hold thought I had gone homosexual , sing our friendly relationship was so far from confidant.( R. WEST ) We shall best understand this usage if we substitute the past tense for the present perfect. The sentence so would run like this: Ihold sometimes wondered if I had nt seemeda small excessively blunt and free with youAn of import shadiness of significance of the original sentence has been lost in this discrepancy, viz. that of an experience summed up and ready at the clip of speech production. With the past tense, the sentence simply deals with events of a past clip unconnected with the present, whereas with the present perfect there is the extra significance of all those past events being alive in the talker s head. 4 # 1041 ; . A. # 1048 ; # 1083 ; # 1100 ; # 1080 ; # 1096 ; 98The Verb: The Perfect Other illustrations might of class be found in which there is some distinctive feature or other in the usage of a perfect signifier. In the class of clip, if such varied utilizations accumulate, they may so convey about a alteration of the significance of the signifier itself. This, nevertheless, lies beyond the range of our present survey. The three verbal classs considered so far # 8212 ; facet, tense, and correlativity # 8212 ; belong together in the sense that the three express aspects of the action closely connected, and could therefore even on occasion be confused and mistaken for each other. There is besides some connexion, though of a looser sort, between these three and some other verbal classs which we will now see, notably that of temper and that of voice. We will in each instance point out the connexions as we come upon them.